ORIGIN, HISTORY, USE, AND CULTIVATION OF SOYBEANS

Compiled by FTF Volunteer Rodney Fink for farmers in Uzbekistan

The cultivated soybean originated in China and was reported in documented references as early as 644 B.C. The early Chinese recognized that to improve the nutritive value and flavor of soybeans as foods, it was necessary to heat or germinate the beans to denature the inhibitor (tripsin) that slows digestion in raw beans. The ancient Chinese developed, from cooked soybeans, foods such as bean curd, soy sauce, sprouts and other processed foods that have become a part of their diet. Current non fermented soybean products of Asian cultures include soy milk, tofu (bean curd), yuba (skin of heated soybean), kinako (flour from dry roasted soybeans), sprouts and green immature beans cooked as a vegetable. Fermented products include Miso (a Japanese seasoning from soybeans and rice), soy sauce, and Tempeh. The Indonesians make a dish from fermented soybeans which is molded as a cake and sliced and eaten as a main course.

SOYBEAN INTRODUCTION INTO EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA

Even though soybeans were introduced into Europe in the early 1700s, little use in the United States occurred until the early 1900s when soybeans were used as a forage crop. Early scientists in the U.S. found the protein level of soybeans at that time quite high (28.3%) compared to 21.1% for canned salmon, 17.5% for navy beans, and 12.7% for eggs. Until 1941 more crop was harvested in the US for forage or plowed under for green manure than was harvested for grain. Since then, the value of he soybean for meal, oil and protein was recognized and now had worked out a diet substituting meat in the human diet with soybeans. Today the value of the soybean for the high protein of the meal and the good quality of oil has placed soybeans as a valuable food crop for the world’s population.

SOYBEAN COMPOSITION

The average composition of today’s soybean is 40% protein, 21% in oil, 34% carbohydrate, and 5% ash. When soybeans are processed by hexane extraction, 27.2 kilos (one bushel) of soybeans yields the following:

• Defatted meal which is about 50% protein 19.6 kilos
• Hulls, which are considered part of the meal 1.9 kilos
• Oil 5.0 kilos
• Shrink from processing 0.7 kilos

Total: 27.2 kilos SOYBEAN OIL AND MEAL

In the United States, soybean oil accounts for over one-half of the fats and oils going into food products. A small percentage (less than 10%) goes into nonfood products. Major food uses are cooking and salad oils, shortening and margarine. Soy oil is also used as a pesticide carrier, Other uses of soybean oil products include antibiotic manufacture, adhesives, waterproof cement, dietary use, bakery products, wetting agents and dispersing agents. New uses are found continuously. Soybean oil has been a major export product of the United States.

Some of the non food or feed uses of soybeans include a large number of industrial uses. Soybean oil can be used in paints, waterproof cements, alkyd resins, soaps, shaving creams, greases and lubricants, enamels, varnishes, leather dressing, caulking compounds, grain-dust suppressant and as an alternative fuel. Pharmaceutical uses can be made of by-products from the deodorization process such as tocopherols from natural vitamin E and sterols for synthetic hormones.

Soybean meal is a major export product of the United States. Most of the soybean meal used in the United States is used for livestock feed. Soybean flour is typically about 50% protein and serves as a substitute for non-fat dry milk, in bakery and related uses. Some soy grits are used in various types of meat patties. Soy protein concentrate is manufactured in a variety of particle sizes and is made by removing the soluble sugars from the soy flour. Soy protein concentrates, which typically contain 70% protein, are used in processed meats, bakery products, cereals, convenience foods, and baby foods. Soy isolates contain 90 to 97% protein and are made by removing both the soluble and insoluble carbohydrates from soy flour. The major use of isolates is as replacers for dairy protein in dairy type items such as whipped toppings and coffee whiteners, in a variety of meat product. Soy flour may be used in sausage to hole in the meat juices and fat. Concentrates and isolates are

The three basic soy proteins (soy flour, soy products. The process changes them from flaky or powdery material to one that can be "chewed," and which is fibrous in nature. They are used incorporated into many processed meats to improve consistency and flavor. While the amount of soy protein used in edible products is small, compared to that fed to poultry and animals, the list of edible products continues to grow. For example, soy oil has been recently used as an effective "vegetable ink" for printing newspapers and other printed materials.

SOYBEAN PRODUCTION IN THE FERGANA VALLEY OF UZBEKISTAN

The Fergana Valley is a fertile region with a latitude about equal to central United States. The soils are somewhat heavy and generally high in clay content. Water is plentiful so the entire valley is capable of being irrigated. Wheat and cotton yields under irrigated conditions are very good, equaling those of similar conditions in the United States. Soybeans are being introduced to fill a need for a quality oilseed and meal (to serve as an import substitute) and to utilize the land left vacant after wheat is harvested. The major obstacles to soybean production are the following:

• No history of growing soybeans in the region (except for 1500 hectares in 1997).
• Short growing season as soybeans are to be planted after wheat is removed in late June.
• Limited number and availability of tested soybean varieties to meet the growing conditions of the region.
• High temperatures at planting time may create some difficulty for soybeans to germinate and become established. Seedling death, due to high temperatures is a possibility.
• Difficulties in adjusting the equipment used for production of cotton to the production of soybeans.
• Since the soybeans are being planted late (thus, not benefiting from a full season), the yield potential will be reduced. Yields of 2017 kilos per hectare (30 bu/acre) should be acceptable for these conditions.
• Growers must learn irrigation techniques for soybeans, especially at planting time.

Soybeans follow wheat in a double cropping system. Factors favoring soybean production are the availability of a good supply of water for irrigation, skilled agronomist/farmers on the farms of the region, good technical support at the Oblast and National level to help guide the production and the profitability to be gained by better utilization of available land. It is reported that over 75,000 hectares of wheat are being grown in the Andijan region and half of this land potentially could be put into soybean production. Such production would do much to help meet the regions oil and meal needs. Several major considerations for the Andijan region are the follow:

• Select high yielding wheat varieties that can be harvested earlier in June than is routinely done.
• Clear the excess straw from the fields as soon as possible.
• Plant the soybeans as soon as possible after wheat harvest, hopefully early enough to avoid extreme soil temperatures.
• See that soil remains moist (so as to keep the environment cool) while the seeds are germinating. Ideally, soybeans should not be planted when the soil temperature is high unless sufficient moisture for rapid germination is present or assured. Soybean seed loses vigor when subjected to high temperature. Current irrigation techniques will need to be evaluated and possibly altered to insure the availability of the proper moisture at the correct time.
• The current "gene pool" of available varieties is very small New varieties, with potential adaptation for the region, should be obtained and evaluated by those responsible for such work.

SOYBEAN CULTURE

SEED BED PREPARATION: A good seed bed provides the following:

A. A place for seeds to germinate quickly and for seedling roots to obtain moisture and nutrients.

B. A good kill of annual weed seedlings and a severe setback to perennials.

C. Good management of crop residues that helps planting and provides effective weed control (either with herbicides or cultivation or both) and minimizes disease and insect infection.

D. Good surface tilth that will prevent crust formation and allow rapid rainfall penetration.

REQUIREMENTS FOR GERMINATION: In order to germinate, soybeans must absorb 50 percent of their weight in water (compared to around 30% by cereal crops such as corn). Good contact between the seed and the soil is needed in order for the seed to take on enough water to swell and germinate. (Left, soybean germinating in Fergana Valley).

FERTILITY MANAGEMENT: Soybeans respond to high fertility levels and as with cereal crops and cotton, the place to begin is with a soil test of the nutrients present in the soil. The range of soil acidity is important and soybeans perform best in a soil acidity pH range between 6.2 and 7.0.

NITROGEN: The soybean is a legume and can fix adequate atmospheric nitrogen if a good supply of nodule forming bacteria are present in the root system. In general, the greater the amount of nitrogen in the soil, the less nitrogen is fixed by the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules. Increasing the nitrogen in the soil decreases the nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere by the bacteria (thus larger nitrogen applications often don’t increase yields). The presence of nitrogen fixing bacteria can be insured by inoculating the seed planted in soils that have never had soybeans planted on them. Inoculation of soybean seed may be applied to the seed just before planting time. The "in the row" method requires a greater amount of inoculum. For soil that has never had soybeans, it may be best to use as much as three times the recommended rate of inoculum the first time soybeans are grown. Retreatment of inoculum is not necessary unless more than four years elapse between soybean crops as the bacteria continue to live in the soil. Viable inoculant should be kept in a cool area prior to applying to the seed the day of planting.

PHOSPHORUS (P): Soybeans require relatively large amounts of phosphorus. The seed and vegetative parts of a crop yielding 4,707 kilos per hectare.

Potassium (K): Soybeans remove large amounts of potassium from the soils. A 2,000 kg/ha soybean crop contains about 1.5 more potassium than a 5,380 kg/ha wheat crop.

PLANTING RATE: Row width is variable in the cotton-producing Andijan Valley so plant populations need to be adjusted according to the row spacing. In general, final soybean populations of 300,000 to 350,000 per hectare are desired. Row spacing should be as close as practical so that the soybeans can shade the ground soon after planting, thus providing assistance for weed control. As row spacing narrows, fewer plants per meter of row are needed to achieve a given population more common than too little. The soybean has a tremendous ability to compensate for variations in population. Therefore, the penalty for either over planting or under planting may be relatively small. Growers should remember to compensate for seeds with poor germination qualities.

Planting depth: Soybeans should have good seed, soil contact and under Uzbekistan conditions, planted about 5 cm in depth. They should be placed so as to reach water which will enable rapid germination and the cooling effect of the moisture.

SOYBEAN DISEASES: Practices to control soybean diseases include the selection of disease resistant varieties, rotating crops, practicing clean tillage, planting disease-free, high quality seed, maintaining soil fertility, controlling nematodes, insects, weeds, and applying fungicides when needed. Field surveys are a means of anticipating disease problems. If a survey show a disease present in your field one year, you will have some advance warning that it may pose a more serious problem in future years.